The Story of Israel-Palestine
- Sep 11, 2021
- 12 min read
Updated: Dec 2, 2025
June 30, 2021
The intense conflict between Israel and Palestine has lasted almost a century, if not longer. Historians continue to unpack the conflict as the situation unfolds before the world, each phase adding a different dynamic. New sources become available as government archives release documents approximately every 10 to 15 years, bringing new information to light that needs to be assimilated into the present dialogue. With the intent of providing a balanced and clear account, we’re going to divide our findings into three articles; each based on long, medium, and short-term factors in the conflict
Long-Term Factors
The Context of Ancient Connections
Palestine and Israel claim exclusive historical and religious rights to the same geographical space. Despite sharing a connection, their sense of Nationalism developed simultaneously but separately. It is clear that both entities consciously chose to sideline 'the other' at various points in History. It is therefore unsurprising that disrespect and separation culminated in drastic conflict over what belongs to whom.
"Archaeology has now become a tool to either sustain or discredit claims of ancestral links to earlier communities made by today's Arabs, Palestinians and Jews in the contested territory.” - Neil Caplan, ''The Israel-Palestine Conflict'
Each side seeks to prove that their inherent connection is the valid one. Both have historical connections to the land. Seeing the ancient roots of this conflict is incredibly important in being able to understand why both sides have fought so hard.
Roots of Palestine:
Palestine derives from ‘Philistia’, a word used in Ancient Greek accounts of the region in the 12th century BC. Several historians have undertaken research to explain the deep roots of Palestine as both a nation and identity. Often this work is propelled by their disappointment with dominating Western and biblical narratives. Many argue against claims that undermine the historical legitimacy of Palestine, highlighting that the collective memory of Palestinians began somewhere in the Late Bronze Age (1200 BC), as opposed to only in the 20th century. Louis Fishman, in his new and groundbreaking study Jews and Palestinians in the Late Ottoman Empire, explains that it was during 1200BC that we see records of the arrival of the Philistines (he also states that at this time there is also the first record of Hebrew people).
We also look at the work of Nur Masalha in understanding Palestinian roots. Masalha delves deep into Palestinian history, accounting for the development of its culture through the use of testimony, language, archival sources, and the work of various cartographers in his book Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. He provides evidence for the existence of Palestinian identity well beyond national movements in the Ottoman period and the ensuing World Wars. Masalha also refutes the common claim that Palestine did not exist as an official administrative entity until 1918. Utilising the work of al-Maqdisi (an ancient Arab geographer), he explains that Palestine existed as a specific administrative unit for over a millennia, first as a Roman province from 135-390 AD, which developed into the Arab Muslim province ‘Jund Filastin’ from 638AD-1099 AD. The Ottoman period began in approximately 1299, and Palestine was divided into different administrative divisions.
Roots of Israel
The literal translation of Israel is “To struggle with God”. To say that the Historiography of Israel is complicated would be a serious understatement. Debates continue between those who perceive the bible as holding historical validity and those who do not. Biblical roots of Israel can be traced back to Abraham (the father of Judaism) and the settlement of Abraham’s descendants in the area of ‘Canaan’. First records of Hebrew people can be traced back to 1200BC. At this time, Canaan* was under the rule of ancient Egypt. Some historians grudgingly note that the written history of Ancient Israel we rely on is the Bible (which poses evidentiary problems due to a very limited amount of archaeological discovery).
Nevertheless, it is important to understand Jewish historical connections to the land. In the Old Testament, Canaan is highlighted as the kingdom wherein the Hebrews finally found an end to their exodus. This story also rests on the account of David (second King of Ancient Israel), who secured the region for his people in approximately 1008BC and reigned over the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Israel Finklestein, an Israeli archaeologist, notes that ‘David represents territorial sovereignty for Israelis and the legend of the empire'. Till around 970 BC, it is believed David and his son, Soloman, ruled over a vast monarchy with Jerusalem as capital. Soloman established Jerusalem as the site of the First Temple and his kingdom lasted till the Babylonian exile in 587BC. When Babylon fell to the Persian King Cyrus in 539BC, things temporarily changed for the Jews. King Cyrus allowed them to return to their homeland in Jerusalem and this is when they began building their Second Temple. When Israel fell to the Romans in 70CE and the Second Temple was destroyed, the land continued to remain deeply significant to Jewish communities. Avi Shlaim, author of the Iron Wall, provides a well-balanced and detailed account of modern Israel. He claims that ever since the destruction of the First Temple during the Babylonian exile, Jews have yearned to return to Jerusalem permanently.
*Canaan generally refers to the area encompassing Palestine and Syria. The Bible explains that the occupation by Israelites of this region was due to it being their promised land by God.
The Holy Sites in the Old City of Jerusalem
Ancient connections to particular holy sites are relevant for both Jews and Palestinians. These sensitive sites within the region have always been an epicentre of tension.
Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount To Jews, Temple Mount is the holiest site because it is the location of their First and Second temples (the first built by King Soloman destroyed by the Babylonians, the second built 70 years later and stood for almost 600 years until its destruction by the Romans). It is the site where Abraham offered his son, Isaac, for sacrifice.
For Muslims, the Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary) is one of the holiest sites as it is where Prophet Mohammed ascended to heaven. In addition, within it is the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock. The Al-Aqsa mosque is highly significant. Aqsa translates to the ‘furthest’ (from Mecca). It is believed that this is the location visited by the Prophet Mohammed in his ‘night journey’* recorded in the Quran. While the direction of prayer for Muslims is now Mecca, Jerusalem was the direction in the older years of Islam.
Dome of the Rock
The Dome of the Rock is in the middle of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif area in Jerusalem (pictured above). It was constructed between 685-691CE under the Umayyad Caliph* . From this point onward, the Dome has served as a landmark of Islam with Arabic inscriptions on the internal and external faces of the building.
Western Wall
The Western Wall is the only remains of the wall surrounding the Jewish Second Temple. Thousands of people visit the wall every year to visit and express prayers that are either spoken or written and placed in the crevices of the wall. Currently, it resembles an open synagogue, where men and women pray separately.
*It is believed that Prophet Mohammad went on a night journey in a single evening on a Buraq (winged creature) from Mecca to Jerusalem and ascended to Heaven.
*The Umayyad Caliphate was the first and most powerful of Islamic dynasties. The Caliph (leader) who reigned during the construction of the Dome of the Rock was Abd al-Malik.
Rise of Nationalism in the Ottoman Era
Several Historians emphasise the significance of growing nationalism amongst Jews and Palestinians in the early 20th century as an important long-term cause of the conflict. Bedross Der Matossian, in a comparative study of the impact of the Young Turk Revolution on intra-ethnic politics in Jerusalem, believes that the revolution in the Ottoman Empire of 1908 had a profound impact on the Jewish communities.
"The Jewish community internalised the revolution by initiating their own micro-revolutions." - Bedross Der Matossian, 'The Young Turk Revolution: Its Impact on Religious Politics of Jerusalem (1908-1912)'
We'll also explore other economic and socio-political factors contributing to the growing Jewish and Palestinian nationalism in the early 20th century. Whatever the causes, the developing national sentiments of both are key in understanding the foundations of the complex conflict today. Each was entrenched in beliefs and concepts about the other and felt compelled to protect what was their own. The events of World War I and after only exacerbated these conditions.
Jewish Nationalism
Palestine’s Jewish community during the late Ottoman era comprised of groups with ethnic and linguistic differences. The community was divided along Ashkenazi–Sephardic lines, with the Ashkenazi Jews tracing their origins back to Eastern Europe and the Sephardi groups tracing their roots to Spain, whose expulsion of the Jews in 1492 sent many to cities in the Ottoman Empire.
Anti-Semitism played a dominating role in Jewish nationalism. Unfortunately, anti-Semitism has lasted for centuries. Some historians find evidence of hostility towards the Jews before the rise of Christianity during the Roman era whereas others explain that it is synonymous with the rise of Christianity. Furthermore, there is a lot of historiography around the origins of anti-Semitism and the reasons for hatred and persecution. Some of the explanations are that Jewish communities remained a distinct group rather than convert to the religion of their different conquerors or that they were a scapegoat for economic and social problems in society. Unique conclusions are reached by Dennis Prager and Joseph Telushkin in Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism. They pinpoint that the reason for Jewish hatred is because of Judaism itself, due to the religion’s beliefs that Jews are God’s chosen people, and that it is their duty to fix the world for the highest good. In addition, the higher quality of their communal cohesion as a result of their commitment and discipline to their religion is apparently upsetting for those who do not experience the same.
Regardless of the debate on the origins of the hostility, anti-Semitism fuelled the Jewish cause to find a home. The Jewish communities in Russia, for example, faced violence and pogroms*. Born from this, with the tradition and memory of Zion*, Jewish nationalism took on a new energy in the late 19th century. All the struggle was channeled into this cause. Avi Shlaim explains the Zionist movement as having emerged in Europe toward the end of the 19th century for the goal of national revival after two thousand years of exile”. Under Theodore Herzl, whose book Der Judenstaat contained a clear plan for a Jewish state that would resolve their struggle, the Zionist movement sought an official homeland. It was when Herzl held the first Zionist congress in Basel, Switzerland in 1897 that the land of Palestine was specified. Some historians see this as the origins of the Palestinian refugee problem.
Avi Shlaim examines the response to this proposal by telling the story of two Viennese rabbis who, curious about the validity of a home in Palestine, sent representatives to investigate. When they reported back, they expressed in a cable that “the bride is beautiful, but she is married to another man”. Nevertheless, the Zionist goal persisted in this manner for some time. While it did not necessarily reflect a complete ignorance of the Arab population on part of the Jews, it did reveal a lack of awareness and forethought, especially of those who thought the Palestinians primitive. In addition, Herzl sought to lobby the support of Ottoman leaders, as well as other world leaders by playing to their interests of foreign policy goals. For example, when he approached British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, he assured him that Jewish territory would be a British colony.
On the other hand, Louis Fishman delves deep into the different Jewish communities in the early 20th century. He points to the different groups, such as the Ashkenazis and Shephardis, and Zionists and non-Zionists. He explains that both Ashkenazi Jews and Sephardi Jews were so focused on finding a national identity within the Ottoman state that even the Zionist organisation in Berlin was influenced and eventually moved away from Herzl’s original goal. The priority was being able to practice their Hebrew culture in any state. In addition, the language of Hebrew evolved as the main mode of communication in different Jewish newspapers and served to seal any gaps amidst these groups. The unison here created a foundation that would later be built upon. The Jewish people that came together prior to World War I, according to Fishman, were a ‘self-segregated’ group and had little to no interest in the existing Palestinian majority.
*Pogroms were violent attacks on Jewish communities that took place in the Russian Empire and other countries.
*Zion is another word for Israel.
Palestinian Nationalism
Similarly, Palestinians developed their political and independent identities more cohesively in the early 20th century. Palestinian nationalism is evident in 1914, well before the breakout of World War I. Fishman highlights a poem printed in Palestinian newspapers which expressed fears of a diminishing foundation for their people -
“Oh my homeland! You have fallen into the hands of the enemy, You have been plundered and are under the injustice of those who hate."
It is understood that the enemy pertained to the growing presence of Jewish communities. (The same poem was highlighted in a Jewish newspaper as an example of anti-Semitism, which only fuelled the Jewish desire for a home). One publication, in particular, was called al-Karmil, which on several occasions called for stronger Palestinian unison against external threats. To add fuel to fire, the growth of a collective Palestinian consciousness found its roots in the discontent of the lower classes. The story sounds all too familiar - peasants worked tirelessly on land they did not own, land owned by the higher classes (in this case a lot of land was owned by the elite in Beirut). The issue was further compounded with the increasing number of Jewish immigrants in 1881, causing occasional clashes well before World War I began. Rashid Khalidi’s widely trusted work Palestinian Identity also outlines these struggles faced by the Palestinian lower classes and the land sales by Zionists. He references Dr. Arthur Ripping, a land expert of the Jewish Agency, who expressed that land was the most important aspect for Jewish roots, and that Jews needed to remove the existing peasants who had been there prior. Khalidi also emphasises the cultural roots of Palestine in areas such as Nablus, Jaffa, and Haifa. These areas were hubs for Arab educators, libraries, and traditional Islamic science. Historians also highlight the Ottoman Young Turks movement as a factor in the growth of Palestinian nationalism, as it led to change, an increase in press and information as well as the expansion of Arabic.
The Haram-al Sharif Incident in 1911 is a landmark in the growth of Palestinian nationalism and revealed deep frustrations toward the Ottoman state. It began with an archaeological dig in Haram al-Sharif (its holy significance has been previously explained) that was carried out by a British exploration team. Rumours spread that there had been theft of holy relics on the part of the British, leading to strikes and protests. The Ottoman government actually took these protests seriously and sent an investigative team to Jerusalem. The reports back from this investigation revealed that members of the Gendarme* had received bribes from the British consulate. Normalcy seemed to resume by summertime when it was reported that nothing had been stolen and tensions eased with the appointment of a new governor in Jerusalem. Nevertheless, the incident created an intense feeling amongst Palestinians to protect their interests, which led to the growth of institutions such as education centres that promoted Islamic education. The difficulties that the Palestinians encountered with Jewish settlements in their homes are responsible for a lot of their frustration. As a group, they felt unheard and marginalised, particularly by European countries.
*The Ottoman Gendarme was a public security organisation responsible for law enforcement amongst civilians.
Final Thoughts
It might appear strange that two groups whose timelines are so closely intertwined can be so antagonised by each other. Harry Ostrer, Director of Human Genetics at the NYU School of Medicine, established in a study that Jews are the genetic brothers of Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese people. More details can be found out here. So why haven't things changed?
For reflection, we contemplate our own personal and familial relationships. The persistence of the status quo is not so surprising. Some of our deepest conflicts exist within us, and with the people we are most attached to. When we thought about it at Rootistry, we wondered to what degree any of us have changed or become more objective when our desires or personal agendas are not fulfilled. To what extent do we control and manipulate to bring it about? How much do we fight to have it our way? How deeply afraid are we of losing everything we believe we need to survive? Sitting in our intellectual armchairs, can any of us pretend that the Israel-Palestine conflict is not just a bigger reflection of where humanity is at? Perhaps that is something to think about.
In our next article on the conflict, we will cover the first World War, Inter-War periods, first Arab-Israeli wars, and the significant events in between. These periods deepened the divisions between the Palestinians and Israelis. These events were so significant as it was a time in History when the dynamics of cause and effect played out so rapidly. For example, it is challenging to discuss World War I without immediately carrying on to explain how it contributed to the Holocaust and World War II. More importantly, it would be incomplete information due to the transformative and pervasive nature of events in the 20th century.
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